However, this perspective on the relationship between mate choice and mating rate is largely based upon false assumptions that non-choosy individuals will mate with all available mates and a negative association between mate choice and mating rate that arises in acceptance threshold models of mate choice.
By considering variation in other components of choice that might not impact mating rate to the same extent as acceptance thresholds, such as the slope of a preference function, it might be found that these aspects of choice have greater freedom to evolve.
A greater appreciation of these different aspects of choice could contribute to understanding the expression of choosy behavior where it may otherwise be unexpected. Thus instead of asking when choice will evolve, a more pertinent question may be how each aspect of choice will evolve. It could be quite revealing if existing theoretical models that are focussed on a single aspect of variation in choice were developed to incorporate variation in multiple aspects of a preference function.
Alternate prospects for the evolution of choice may then become apparent. For example, although an increase in the acceptance threshold is often constrained because of a costly influence on mating rate, variation in the slope of a preference function may not face similar limitations. A prime example of this kind of opportunity is the way in which Rowe et al. Rather than increased female choice resulting from sexually antagonistic selection, females were instead able to evolve indifference to male traits.
Through developing a better understanding of the different metrics available to describe choice, there are significant opportunities for future research to consider how different components of mate choice evolve, either independently or as co-evolving traits e.
An improved understanding of different choice metrics and their relation to each other would also ensure that the most appropriate metric s to describe choice, relevant to the question being asked, are used in models of mate choice. A key consideration in describing mate choice is the effort that is invested into choice by choosy individuals, principally mate search effort and mate assessment effort e. A number of studies have sought to determine mate search effort e.
For example, mate search effort and mate assessment effort can become conflated when individuals are searching for a specific type of mate e. Mate assessment effort may also be difficult to distinguish if this effort is largely invested in neurological processes that are difficult to observe directly. The observed ability of an individual to differentiate potential mates may also not reliably indicate the effort that has been invested due to individual variation in mate assessment efficiency.
The ability to differentiate potential mates with the same accuracy may require varying levels of effort or require different lengths of time depending on the individual Chittka et al. The empirical measurement of mate assessment effort, and distinguishing this from mate search effort, therefore presents a significant challenge.
However, understanding how individuals invest resources into mate assessment, how this equates to the accuracy of mate assessment, and the relation between mate assessment effort and preference functions is likely to be crucial in understanding patterns of mate choice Castellano and Cermelli ; Chittka et al.
As we have seen, the description of mate choice can be complex and a confusing array of terminology has developed in this field. Explanations for this are that the popularity of the subject has generated many different perspectives and there are many aspects of mate choice that can be described. Researchers need to be vigilant in the language used to describe mate choice as it cannot be assumed that the same term used in different instances is describing the same component of choice, nor that different terms will always describe different components of choice.
Further, when choosing a trait to describe mate choice, little may be understood about variation in choice if there is no clear expectation or understanding of how the trait will vary when there is no choice. In this review, I propose a more integrated approach to the description of mate choice that distinguishes variation in the horizontal position of a preference function i. An advantage of this approach to describing mate choice is that it could be applied to a wide range of preference functions that vary in shape, thus allowing greater comparison across taxa.
From an improved understanding of how choice is described, significant opportunities for future research to advance our understanding of mate choice are revealed. I am grateful to Tracey Chapman and members of the Chapman Lab at the University of East Anglia for insightful discussion and to Maria Almbro, John Fitzpatrick and 2 anonymous reviewers for their time and valuable comments that greatly improved this work.
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The Development of Birdsong. Mate selection involves not only the cue preference of individuals in the choice of partners but also the methods used by individuals in mate choice Liu et al. This paper focuses on cue preference in the choice of partners.
Resources, as an important bargaining chip in mate selection, play a decisive role in the process of mate choice decision-making and have attracted the attention of many researchers Buss, ; Yong and Li, ; Li et al.
Numerous other factors also affect individual preferences for mate cues, such as culture, the actual sex ratio, values, mate value, aesthetic standards, the mate selection purpose, and resource acquisition ability Buss, ; Chang et al. This paper mainly discusses the impact of resources. Generally, the amount of resources influences the dimension and degree of the preference for mate selection cues in the mate selection decision.
In addition, an increase in their own financial resources will lead women to pay more attention to the appearance and character of men Gangestad and Simpson, ; Lu et al. Regarding the impact of resources on mate choice, money is an obvious factor, but resources include not only money but also time Leclerc et al.
The time resource discussed in this paper refers to the time available to individuals from the beginning of the mate choice decision to the completion of the mate choice decision. Studies have found that an abundance of time will affect the process and outcome of mate selection Liu et al.
When time resources are sufficient, individuals tend to consider more dimensions of mate preference, while the opposite is true when time resources are scarce. The amount of time resources also affects the information-processing mode of mate selection; that is, do people use rational analytical methods or heuristic methods of bounded rationality to make mate choices?
Liu et al. Unfortunately, the research on the influence of time resources on mate selection has not advanced since the cited publications, and additional research is required concerning the influence of time resources on mate selection and its mechanism.
Time and money display both similarities and differences. As a resource, time has much in common with financial resources, as both are limited resources that can be saved, spent or utilized Li and Huang, ; Mogilner and Norton, However, time resources also possess several unique characteristics different from the characteristics of financial resources Mogilner and Aaker, ; Li and Huang, ; Gino and Mogilner, ; Zhao, ; Hershfield et al. As one example, time resources cannot be replenished. Once lost, they cannot be recovered.
Therefore, individuals may be more cautious with respect to spending time resources. Time resources also have no social exchange significance. In addition, because time resources have no material substance, they are conceptually vaguer and more difficult to measure than financial resources, and, therefore, individuals are less sensitive to sunk time costs than to sunk money costs DeVoe and Pfeffer, ; Zhao, Moreover, time resources cannot be stored.
Based on the preceding discussion, this paper summarizes the relevant theories and studies on the influence of resources on cue preference in mate selection decisions while considering the two aspects of money and time. In addition, it presents a theoretical description of the influence mechanism of resources on mate selection decisions.
Researchers have proposed theoretical models of mate selection from several perspectives. In the early stage of this research, mate selection was typically studied from the perspective of evolutionary psychology as a means of reproduction. However, mate selection is both a biological instinct and a result of socialization. For example, positive assortative mating theory, complementarity theory, and social exchange theory elaborate the relationship between resources and mate selection from the perspective of sociology.
In recent years, researchers have proposed considering mate selection as a type of decision made in pursuit of optimization. Therefore, a theoretical model that captures the influence of resources on decision-making would represent a valuable reference. Researchers have different views on how resources are integrated to achieve optimal reproduction. According to the theory of parental investment proposed by Trivers , the purpose of mate selection is the continuation of the race, and both men and women have different incentives due to their different parental investments.
That is, women value money more, while men value appearance more. Because women invest more in the reproduction and raising of their offspring and take more initiative, they pay more attention to the characteristics that are conducive to the raising of offspring, such as economic resources and social status. Of course, the requirements for these characteristics can also be used to screen for good male genes. Reproductive strategy theory, which also focuses on offspring investment, emphasizes the influence of early family life experience on mate selection.
Belsky divided reproductive strategies into high reproductive strategies and low reproductive strategies according to the amount of investment in offspring. Life-history theory focuses on how individuals allocate time, resources, and energy effectively for survival and reproduction Roff, ; Belsky, ; Dunkel et al.
Life-history strategies can be divided into fast strategies and slow strategies. Fast strategies focus on offspring quantity, while slow strategies focus on offspring quality. Life-history theory holds that the main task of the entire life history of an individual is to balance resource allocation because resources are limited.
In the process of resource allocation, two main investment directions are concerned, namely, physical investment and reproduction investment. As a key link in reproduction investment, mate selection is of course inseparable from the allocation of time and resources. Therefore, does the amount of resources that an individual can offer in a trade-off affect his or her preference regarding the characteristics of a mate? In fact, mate selection requirements change in response to changes in environmental cues Roney, ; Janssens et al.
Sexual strategies theory divides mate selection strategies into long-term and short-term sexual strategies from the perspective of evolutionary psychology.
Long-term sexual strategies refer to mate selection strategies aimed at establishing long-term and stable sexual relationships, while short-term sexual strategies refer to a mate selection strategy aimed at establishing short-term sexual relationships, such as one-night stands Buss and Schmitt, , These different sexual strategies have developed based on different adaptations of both sexes for the purpose of successful reproduction.
In different sexual strategies, individuals have different preferences in mate selection. Individuals who adopt long-term sexual strategies pay more attention to resources and personality, and there are further differences between men and women. In contrast, individuals with short-term sexual strategies pay more attention to physical features, and there is no gender difference Li, Studies have found that men prefer short-term partners, while women tend to seek long-term partners Buss and Schmitt, , but when women have more financial resources, their preference for short-term partners increases Gangestad and Simpson, It can be inferred that individuals with fewer resources who adopt long-term sexual strategies will pay more attention to resource-related characteristics because they are in high demand, while individuals who adopt short-term sexual strategies may be less affected by their own resources in these circumstances.
Complementarity theory Winch, argues that when mate selection is manifested as a psychological need and personal motivation, individuals tend to refer to their own needs and choose a member of the opposite sex whose characteristics complement their own.
Accordingly, Becker predicted that individuals with fewer financial resources would tend to choose mates with more financial resources, but later studies found the opposite Lui and Suen, Therefore, there may be gender differences in resource complementarity.
Positive assortative mating theory Buss, emphasizes that individuals choose partners with characteristics similar to their own. Therefore, individuals tend to choose a member of the opposite sex with similar values, socioeconomic status, and educational level Watkins and Meredith, ; Lui and Suen, ; Deng et al. In the research on animal mating, the same matching principle has been found Jiang et al. The matching of biological characteristics can be explained from a genetic perspective, that is, the reduction of genetic variation Alvarez and Jaffe, The matching of social characteristics is the result of socialization.
Individuals of similar social and economic status have similar social living environments. Therefore, it is beneficial for them to find partners with matching social characteristics to facilitate adaption to a shared social life. According to social exchange theory, mate selection is a process of seeking resource exchange Edwards, ; Homans, ; Kieserling, This theory emphasizes that when making mate decisions, individuals are attracted to people who have the resources that they require.
Stimulus-value-role theory also holds that the maintenance of romantic relationships is based on the fair exchange of resources between men and women Murstein, That is, the amount of resources is a key influence on preference when choosing a mate. To better adapt to social life, individuals must consider the resource requirements for their partners according to the amount of their resources to achieve the best resource exchange and matching.
Social learning theory Hayes, argues that preference in mate selection is influenced by the social status of men and women and the power of socialization. In a patriarchal society, men are in a dominant socioeconomic position and have more choices in choosing a mate.
In such a context, women are in a relatively disadvantaged position, and thus, compared with men, it is more difficult for women to survive independently. Therefore, they tend to seek resource-rich men of their own socioeconomic status when choosing a mate, and they care much less about the physical features of men.
Through learning this social reality, individuals develop different decision-making behaviors. In fact, the mate selection decision behavior of individuals is the result of socialization, and individuals tend to choose the partner who represents the best social match. Specifically, men prefer women who are below them in, e. In contrast, women are more likely to choose partners who are superior to them in economic ability, educational background, and other aspects Wei, According to this theory, in the socialization process, people develop different gender role expectations regarding their partners, which affects how different individuals treat resources when selecting a mate.
Therefore, the influence of the amount of resources of both men and women on preferences in mate selection should be reflected in different dimensions.
Namely, this influence results in the difference between men who value appearance and women who value money. Therefore, gender differences in the influence of resources on mate choice decisions are worthy of further research. Therefore, resources play an important role in mate selection. Different individuals make different trade-offs and resource exchanges when making mate choice decisions and determine whether they improve the quality of future generations or enhance social adaptation.
However, although early researchers contributed a substantial number of useful outcomes regarding the influence of resources on mate selection, they limited the studied resources to money, while neglecting the importance of time resources.
Mate selection is a complex decision-making process Harte et al. To achieve the purpose of mating, the process of choosing a mate is based on an analysis of information. At present, several theoretical models have been used to investigate the influence of the amount of resources on decision-making; this research is of substantial significance for us in examining the influence of the amount of resources on the decision-making behind mate selection.
These theoretical models also provide insight into the effect of time resources on mate selection. The mate selection decision is a heuristic search process with limited rationality, and time urgency will affect the information-processing mode of the subjects with respect to mate selection cues Liu et al. Individuals under high time pressure exhibit task focus, while non-task focus occurs if abundant time is available Li et al.
Based on the definition of time resources in this paper, we assume that there is no essential difference in the significance of time resources for individuals between the mating decision task in the experiment and the mating decision in reality.
Thus, according to the attention-focus model, we speculate that individuals who lack time pay more attention to the traits that they value most when making mate selection decisions because of the limited scope of the attention focus.
In contrast, individuals with copious time pay more attention to a wider range of traits and have more diversified dimensions of cue preference when making mate selection decisions. Whether time resources play different roles in the experiment and the real mate selection decision process needs to be verified by future research. According to the mindset theory, different resources activate different sets of thoughts. The introduction of money will activate the value maximization mindset of individuals, while the introduction of time will lead individuals to assume an emotional mindset Liu and Aaker, The introduction of the concept of money leads individuals to pay more attention to the practical value of products and to pursue the maximization of their own economic interests, while the introduction of the concept of time creates a tendency among individuals to think about information related to personal meaning, such as emotions and experiences Liu and Aaker, ; Mogilner and Aaker, ; Tong et al.
According to this theory, it can be assumed that financial and time resources will activate different thinking patterns in the mate selection decision-making process, thereby influencing the preference of individuals in mate selection.
Individuals stimulated by financial resources will pay more attention to the characteristics related to such resources when seeking value maximization, while individuals affected by time resources will pay more attention to the personality characteristics of a potential mate and the compatibility of their outlooks when emotions start to develop. Further experiments are required to test these claims. The dual system action model for decision-making Sloman, ; Kahneman and Frederick, ; Sun et al.
When making decisions, an increase in time pressure caused by a lack of time resources will drive individuals to rely more on automatic and rapid heuristic strategies and reduce the use of slower but more comprehensive and effective analytical strategies Saini and Monga, ; Li et al.
However, the amount of financial resources will affect how heavily individuals weigh their own resources Hansen et al. In the decision-making process, individuals tend to employ a rational analysis process but engage in less emotional participation. Therefore, one can speculate that the cognitive changes caused by financial resources are influenced by the rational analysis system, while the emotional changes caused by time resources are driven by the heuristic system.
Nicieza and Metcalfe two-system priming model notes that there are two major subsystems in the decision-making process of individuals, specifically the hot system and the cold system. The hot system primarily refers to the emotional system, which is physiologically based on the amygdala and dominates emotion-driven behavior. The cold system is the cognitive system, which is physiologically based on the hippocampus and frontal lobes and governs rational, thoughtful, strategic, and planned behavior.
A lack of time resources will make individuals feel anxiety and tension, which will affect their judgment in decision-making DeVoe and Pfeffer, ; Young et al. Thus, we can infer that time resources mainly concern the hot system, while financial resources mainly concern the cold system. Thus, time and financial resources influence mate selection decisions through different action mechanisms, namely, through cognitive channels money and through emotional channels time.
The classical economic theory holds that the ideal decision proceeds from the rational evaluation and comparison of various options and that emotional factors can interfere with rational analysis and reduce the efficiency of decision-making; these factors can only play a negative role when we attempt to make optimal decisions.
However, modern researchers believe that emotions are as important to decision-making as cognition Olofsson et al. Therefore, based on the preceding analysis, this paper describes a possible cognitive and emotional influence mechanism for financial and time resources with respect to cue preferences in mate selection decisions. We assume that self-esteem plays a mediating role in the influence of financial resources on mate selection decisions.
Specifically, the amount of financial resources can make individuals feel subjectively rich or poor Nelson and Morrison, ; Li et al. Thus, one can speculate that when an individual possesses more financial resources, the corresponding level of self-esteem is higher. For example, men with different levels of self-esteem prefer women with different personalities Gong, There are good reasons to suppose that mate value plays a mediating role in the influence of financial resources on mate preference.
Based on this definition, the subjective sense of wealth provided by financial resources is strongly related to self-concept, and mate value, as a basic part of self-concept, should also be influenced by such resources Millar et al. Researchers have found that mate value has a significant predictive effect with respect to the mate selection strategy Surbey and Brice, ; Zhang et al.
The amount of financial resources that a man possesses is a positive predictor of his mate value Shackelford et al. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that mate value plays a mediating role in the influence of financial resources on cue preferences in mate selection. One assumption is that the sense of power plays a mediating role in the relationship between financial resources and mate selection.
For consumers, deprivation of financial resources reduces the sense of personal power and resource control Li et al. There are also gender differences in the influence of the sense of power on the mate selection decision.
These findings suggest that the sense of power is likely to be a mediating variable between financial resources and mate selection. Based on the previous theoretical analysis, time resources primarily influence the mate selection decision through the emotional path. The research on event-related potential also provides valuable information regarding the relationship between emotion and decision-making.
Gehring and Bortfeldt recorded feedback-related negativity FRN located in the anterior gyrus of the cingulate belt in an economic decision-making game experiment. This evaluation can affect expectations regarding the emotional experience caused by a decision or affect the emotional state at the time of the decision, which influence decision-making behavior.
The same study also showed that individuals with high anxiety had lower FRN than people with low trait anxiety. A lack of time resources will result in the accumulation of negative emotions, such as individual anxiety, and affect decision-making through the emotional path Li et al.
Mate selection is a complex decision-making process Candolin, Therefore, we can assume that anxiety plays a mediating role in the influence of time resources on mate selection.
When time resources are scarce, people experience a sense of pressure Young et al. Therefore, time pressure may induce an unconscious fear of death. Fear also has a significant impact on individual trust decisions Qiao et al. Therefore, the choice of a spouse can also be influenced by fear. In the field of mate selection, although there is no study that directly measures the influence of individual fear emotions on mate selection decisions, several researchers have experimentally verified that the initiation of the threat of death can significantly affect the life-history strategy and mate selection criteria of individuals Griskevicius et al.
According to life-history theory, individuals derive life-history strategies in the process of resource allocation Belsky, Therefore, we hypothesized that fear plays a mediating role in the influence of time resources on mate selection.
According to the two-system priming model, in the decision-making process, the cold and hot systems generally work together but only because different stimuli will result in situations in which the cold and hot systems play a dominant role. Therefore, we believe that the influence mechanisms of monetary and temporal stimuli are not completely independent of one another. In addition, cognition and emotion also interact Ran, ; Barajas, Emotions influence individual decision-making by playing a motivational role Song et al.
In addition, high individual self-esteem helps alleviate fear Harmon-Jones et al. Therefore, we assume that financial resources affect mate selection mainly through cognitive pathways, that time resources affect mate selection mainly through emotional pathways, and that cognitive pathways affect emotional pathways Figure 1.
This paper reviews and draws lessons from the theoretical models related to the influence of resources on mate selection and finds that a large number of studies have focused on results rather than process.
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